Introduction

In the 1970s and 1980s, terrorists operated in solid, organized groups using long-standing techniques. Their goals were generally clearly defined and political, such as the formation of an independent state. Organizations such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Ireland, the Red Brigades in Italy, and Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) in Spain usually focused their efforts on embassies and military targets as a way to get the attention of national governments. Some actions involved civilians (e.g., hijacking aircraft and setting off bombs in London), but the death and injury of civilians was considered a means to an end: putting pressure on states to accept the group's demands.

Since the 1990s, these traditional motives in terrorism have become clouded. Motives have become broader, with religious goals joining and sometimes superseding political ambitions. Members of terrorist groups are more diverse and distributed geographically, making them incredibly difficult to identify. Individuals and small cells may operate independently, with little or no contact with a movement's leadership. Directions for homemade weapons are easily available, and perpetrators even use themselves as weapons (e.g., suicide bombings). In addition, targets are not easy to identify; today anything and anyone can be the target of a terrorist attack. The hijacking of aircraft and ships is no longer just a tactic to exert political pressure, but is now also a way to acquire an offensive weapon for attacks. The best-known example of this, of course, was seen on September 11, 2001.

Dogs have been used to detect mines and other explosives for many years. Even before World War I, dogs were trained to detect the chemical signature of explosives and weapons. Since World War II, dog-handler teams have been used extensively by the military to locate mines. However, the first mine action programs, including those using dogs, were inefficient and unsafe, partly because the demining organizations still had to learn their craft, partly because they had few resources to work with, and also because they did not yet have safe, effective methods of searching for mines with dogs.

Most operational searches for explosives find nothing, which can be viewed as a success: where there is no bomb, none can explode. The work of explosive detection is very serious; mistakes can be catastrophic. This enormous responsibility must always be kept in mind while training explosive or mine detector dogs. Dogs play a critical role in ensuring accuracy. A well-trained explosive or mine detection dog has an investigative accuracy level of 95 percent, which is 40 percent higher than the performance a human has in the search for the same explosive.

As specialists in explosive detection, dogs do a serious job, although the dogs consider their job a game. With the reward of play, a favorite toy, or food each time they successfully find a target scent, dogs can be trained to signal when they smell explosives.

We wish to thank Claudia and Andre Boomaars of Dog Training Center Oosterhout (www.hondencentrum-claudia.nl) for the photos of our training methods and the information they contributed to this book. We also thank the much-too-early-deceased Sgt. 1. Ed Snoek, commander of the dog section of the Royal Dutch Airforce at Airbase Volkel, the Netherlands, and also Nico Ram, police dog training instructor of the regional police, Rotterdam-Rijnmond, for all the advice and information they gave us during the many years we were in contact, and for their help in training our dogs.